When was imperialism introduced

Crowe , a senior diplomat in the British Foreign Office, concluded that not Russia but Germany was the most dangerous competitor for Great Britain. Consequently, the British tried to minimize existing imperial tensions with Russia. On the face of it, the Anglo-Russian Entente of was an agreement relating only to Persia; Persia was divided into a British, a Russian, and a neutral zone of interest. In reality, this treaty ended all imperial tensions between the two countries, allowing the British to focus on the German danger.

The Austro-Italian antagonism led to other imperial conflicts that overshadowed the harmony of the so-called Concert of Europe before However, during the following decades Franco-Italian relations improved while tensions with Austria grew, especially in the Balkans. In Italy the Balkans were seen as a possible field of future expansion, while most politicians in Vienna regarded this region as the natural backyard of the Habsburg Empire.

Tensions in the Balkans, such as the Austrian annexation of Bosnia in , seriously threatened the relationship between Austria-Hungary and Italy. Although both countries were members of the same military alliance, they built systems of fortresses against each other at the Austro-Italian border and initiated an arms race. The Second Moroccan Crisis, which reached its climax in September , was a watershed event.

Even though the French had violated some articles of the Algeciras Treaty of , which had regulated the status of Morocco, most of the European governments regarded the German step as an overreaction not justified by German interests in the region. As the French government could count both on Russian and British support, it saw no reason to retreat. Both sides escalated the conflict until in September Europe was on the brink of war.

To make matters worse, public opinion in both countries left little room for diplomatic maneuvering. In France, the German gunboat was seen as a direct attack on the French semi-colony Morocco. The nationalist press mobilized the public to stand firm against German imperialist demands. Consequently, the nationalist press initiated a public outcry in favor of annexing West Morocco.

However, this strategy failed. The government had little trouble setting the nationalist outcry in motion, but rather more trouble stopping it. After contentious negotiations, a compromise was found. France received the right to establish a full colonial regime in Morocco. As compensation it handed over territories in central Africa that it barely controlled.

For the French nationalists the concessions were too much, while for their German counterparts they were much too little. Germany acted as the main aggressor. The diplomatic constellation of the July Crisis had already become visible. Although neither the Entente Cordiale nor the Anglo-Russian Entente contained any military regulations and Great Britain did not join any European military alliance before August , at the climax of the crisis British and French talks started between the army leadership.

Over the following years the informal military cooperation intensified. The imperialist policy in the Balkans contributed significantly to the July Crisis. Between and , the region was in permanent turmoil. Nation-building at the expense of the Ottoman Empire went hand in hand with processes of decolonization.

Moreover, to a growing extent ethnic cleansing became a weapon used against civilians. However, in these multilingual and multi-religious regions it was impossible to define territorial borders according to nationalities. In a newly formed coalition of Balkan states started a war of aggression against the Ottoman Empire. Within a couple of weeks the Turkish army collapsed. Some of the Great Powers were drawn into the struggle against their wishes and were forced to define their interests.

On several occasions, leading officers of the Central Powers demanded a preemptive war. However, even if some Russian intellectuals and young officers supported a pan-Slavic ideology, it hardly influenced the decisions of the Russian government.

However, in the situation in the Balkans was still dangerous, as the Great Powers were unable to control the strong revisionist and nationalist tendencies. Especially in Austria-Hungary, influential politicians and the general staff were pushing for a great war in order to realize far-reaching imperial ambitions. Unlike other imperial powers, who saw war as a threat to the integrity of their imperial domains, the Young Turks regarded war as a chance for national and imperial renewal.

Even if imperialism was one of the crucial factors that led to World War I, it is striking that by early all colonial disputes between Germany and Britain had been solved.

After long and difficult debates and diplomatic maneuvers, the agreements concerning the Baghdad Railway had resulted in compromise solutions in which all parties except the Ottoman Empire profited. British diplomacy stopped resisting the German-Turkish project of building a railway from Constantinople to the Persian Gulf. However, the Germans agreed that the last section of the line would be built only by British investors and would be under sole British political and economic control.

A compromise was also found in the question of the Mesopotamian oil fields. The secret Anglo-German treaty of concerning the partition of the Portuguese colonies was a German success as well.

Britain agreed to act against the political interests of its traditional ally, Portugal, and used the question of the colonies to appease Germany. From this perspective, World War I began as a European war but then had global and imperial consequences because of the nature of the states that took part in it. Barth, Boris: Imperialism , in: online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed.

DOI : Version 1. By Boris Barth. Imperialism was responsible for reforming the European alliances. Imperialist expansion played a major role in the growing tensions between Germany and Great Britain after the turn of the century. The growing imperialist rivalry was responsible for the slow formation of an anti-German alliance system in Europe. Because of the increasing imperial competition and the naval race, the British decided to work with France and to sign the Entente Cordiale in , thus putting an end to long-standing Franco-British colonial rivalries.

German diplomacy was based on the conviction that the Anglo-Russian antagonism would remain a central factor for Great Power diplomacy no matter how Germany acted. In Eyre Crowe formulated his famous memorandum predicting that Germany, not Russia, would become the most dangerous threat for Britain. In the same year the Anglo-Russian treaty on the partition of Persia was signed, ending any major imperial rivalry between the two countries.

Neither of these treaties was a military alliance, but they shaped British foreign policy, as the British continued to view Germany as the only dangerous international competitor.

Between and the British concluded that relations with the aggressive Wilhelmine state had to be improved to avoid the danger of a major European war. After the failure of the famous Haldane Mission, British statesmen looked for initiatives in imperial affairs for which compromise solutions with Germany could be found.

The difficult negotiations for the Baghdad Railway were successfully finished in the spring of Additionally, with the treaty partitioning the Portuguese colonies, the British allowed Germany to acquire territory in Africa at the cost of its traditional ally Portugal. As a result, by the summer of the period of Anglo-German imperial rivalry had ended.

By the end of the Second Moroccan Crisis most of the colonial disputes between Berlin and Paris had also disappeared. The French colonial administration focused on penetrating and stabilizing its newly acquired African territories. In the Balkans, however, the combination of conflicting Austro-Hungarian, Italian, and Russian imperialist aspirations, the breakdown of the European region of the Ottoman Empire, and aggressive processes of nation building in Greece , Bulgaria , Serbia , Romania had been an increasing threat since Ultimately, the explosive combination of these events contributed to the constellation of the July Crisis in Imperiale Weltverbesserung seit dem Jahrhundert, Konstanz The Advocacy of War and Rearmament , London Roger: Imperialism.

A Short History, Princeton Sir Charles Addis, , London , p. Barth, Boris: Die deutsche Hochfinanz und die Imperialismen. Banken und Aussenpolitik vor , Stuttgart Steiner. Bayly, Christopher A. Global connections and comparisons , Malden Blackwell. Bentley, Jerry H. Cain, Peter J. Chickering, Roger: We men who feel most German. Hobson, Rolf: Imperialism at sea. Naval strategic thought, the ideology of sea power, and the Tirpitz Plan, , Boston Brill Academic Publishers.

Kennedy, Paul M. Louis, William Roger ed. Mommsen, Wolfgang J. Morris, A. Anthony: The scaremongers. A theoretical overview , Princeton; Kingston M. Wiener; Ian Randle Publishers. A short history , Princeton Princeton University Press.

Porter, Andrew N. The nineteenth century , volume 3, Oxford Oxford University Press. British Protestant missionaries and overseas expansion, , Manchester Manchester University Press. Rosenberg, Emily S. Citation Barth, Boris: Imperialism , in: online. Metadata Subjects. Author Keywords. Imperialism was not used in its modern sense until the later 19th cent. Before then it usually referred to the aggression of Napoleon Bonaparte. It has also taken on a wider meaning.

It usually refers to territorial acquisitions, but can also cover extensions of power or influence which fell short of that. It has been explained in various ways. Missionaries used to attribute Britain's imperial successes to the will of God. The favourite theories, however, are economic. At the root of imperialism lay Britain's phenomenal commercial expansion following her industrial revolution. That gave her world-wide material interests, which needed to be secured. My grandma says she knows how I feel when I knit my brows.

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